関係詞

関係代名詞の選び方

  • who(主格): 先行詞が人 → The man who lives next door is kind.
  • whom(目的格): 先行詞が人・目的語として → The teacher whom I respect retired last year.
  • which(主格・目的格): 先行詞が物・動物 → The book which is on the table is mine.
  • that(主格・目的格): who/which の代わりに使えるが、非制限用法(カンマ付き)では使えない
  • whose(所有格): 先行詞が人・物 → I know a student whose father is a doctor.

制限用法 vs. 非制限用法(カンマ付き)

  • 制限用法: The woman who called me is my sister.(どの女性かを特定)
  • 非制限用法: My sister, who lives in Tokyo, called me.(補足情報・カンマが必要)
  • 非制限用法では that は使えない(which または who を使う)

関係副詞の用法

  • where(場所): This is the city where I was born. = the city in which I was born.
  • when(時): I remember the day when we first met. = the day on which we first met.
  • why(理由): I don't know the reason why she left. = the reason for which she left.
  • how(方法): This is how he solved the problem.(the way how とは言わない)

仮定法

仮定法過去(現在の事実に反する仮定)

If S + 過去形〜, S would[could/might] + 動詞原形〜.

  • If I had more time, I would travel around the world.(今時間があれば…)
  • If I were you, I would study harder.(be動詞は were が正式)

仮定法過去完了(過去の事実に反する仮定)

If S + had + 過去分詞〜, S would[could/might] + have + 過去分詞〜.

  • If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.(あのとき勉強していれば…)

I wish 構文

  • I wish S + 過去形〜(現在の事実に反する願望): I wish I could fly.(空を飛べたらなあ)
  • I wish S + had + 過去分詞〜(過去の事実に反する願望): I wish I had been more careful.(もっと注意深くあればよかった)

不定詞・動名詞

to不定詞の3用法

  • 名詞的用法(〜すること): To learn a new language is challenging.
  • 形容詞的用法(〜するための・〜すべき): I have a lot of work to do today.
  • 副詞的用法(〜するために・〜して): She studied hard to pass the exam.

動名詞のみをとる動詞(MEGFAPS)

  • Mind / Enjoy / Give up / Finish / Avoid / Practice / Stop
  • 例: I enjoy reading novels. / She gave up smoking.

to不定詞のみをとる動詞

  • want / wish / hope / decide / plan / promise / refuse / agree / manage
  • 例: She decided to study abroad. / He refused to answer.

意味が変わる動詞(remember / forget / try / stop)

  • remember to do(〜することを覚えている)vs. remember doing(〜したことを覚えている)
  • forget to do(〜し忘れる)vs. forget doing(〜したことを忘れる)
  • try to do(〜しようとする)vs. try doing(試しに〜してみる)
  • stop to do(〜するために立ち止まる)vs. stop doing(〜するのをやめる)

分詞・分詞構文

分詞の形容詞的用法

  • 現在分詞(〜ing): 能動・進行の意味 → the sleeping baby / a running dog
  • 過去分詞(〜ed/不規則): 受動・完了の意味 → a broken window / spoken English
  • 後置修飾: The girl wearing a red dress is my sister.

分詞構文(副詞的用法)

  • 接続詞節を分詞で置き換えたもの → 時・理由・条件・付帯状況を表す
  • Finishing her homework, she went to bed.(= After she finished)
  • Not knowing his address, I couldn't write to him.(否定は Not を前に)
  • 独立分詞構文: Weather permitting, we'll have a picnic.(主語が異なる)

助動詞

助動詞 主な意味 例文
should 〜すべきだ(義務・忠告)/ 〜のはずだ(推量) You should see a doctor.
must 〜しなければならない(強い義務)/ 〜に違いない(強い推量) This must be the right answer.
ought to 〜すべきだ(should より道徳的ニュアンス) You ought to apologize to her.
would 〜でしょう(仮定法)/ 〜したものだった(過去の習慣)/ 〜していただけますか(丁寧な依頼) Would you help me with this?
could 〜できた(過去の能力)/ 〜かもしれない(弱い可能性)/ 〜できましょうか(丁寧な依頼) Could you please say that again?
might 〜かもしれない(may より弱い可能性) It might rain this afternoon.

should have + 過去分詞(過去への後悔・批判)

  • You should have called me earlier.(もっと早く電話すべきだったのに)
  • She must have been tired.(彼女は疲れていたに違いない → 過去の強い推量)
  • He can't have done that.(彼がそんなことをしたはずがない → 過去の強い否定推量)

接続詞・副詞

逆接・対比

  • though / although(〜だけれども): Although it was raining, we went out.
  • while(〜の一方で・対比): While Tom likes sports, his brother prefers music.
  • however(しかしながら・副詞): It was expensive. However, I bought it.

原因・結果・追加

  • because(〜なので・従属接続詞): I stayed home because I was sick.
  • therefore(したがって・副詞): It was raining. Therefore, the game was canceled.
  • moreover / furthermore(さらに・それに加えて): 英作文の本論展開で多用
  • unless(〜でない限り): Unless you study, you won't pass. = If you don't study, you won't pass.

比較表現

同等比較・比較級・最上級の基本

  • as + 形容詞 + as: She is as tall as her brother.
  • 比較級 + than: This book is more interesting than that one.
  • the + 最上級 + in[of]: Mt. Fuji is the highest mountain in Japan.

重要な比較構文

  • 倍数表現: This room is twice as large as that one.
  • the + 比較級, the + 比較級: The harder you study, the better your results will be.
  • 比較級 + and + 比較級: The population is growing larger and larger.
  • 比較級強調: This is much[far/even/a lot] better than I expected.
  • no more than / not more than: no more than(〜にすぎない)vs. not more than(多くても〜)

受動態

時制別の受動態の形

  • 現在形: The window is broken every day.
  • 過去形: The window was broken yesterday.
  • 現在完了: The window has been broken.
  • 過去進行形: The road was being repaired at that time.
  • 助動詞 + 受動態: This problem must be solved immediately.

by 以外の前置詞を使う受動態表現

  • be interested in: I am interested in science.
  • be surprised at: She was surprised at the news.
  • be satisfied with: He was satisfied with the result.
  • be known to: This painting is known to many people. ※ "be known for"(〜で有名)とも区別する
  • be made of(材料が形状を保つ): This table is made of wood.
  • be made from(材料が変化して別の物に): Wine is made from grapes.

SVOO の受動態(2通りある)

  • 能動態: He gave me a book. → He gave a book to me.
  • 受動態①: I was given a book by him.(間接目的語を主語に)
  • 受動態②: A book was given to me by him.(直接目的語を主語に)

SVOC の受動態

  • 能動態: They elected him president.
  • 受動態: He was elected president.(補語 president はそのまま残る)
  • 能動態: They call her "the Iron Lady".
  • 受動態: She is called "the Iron Lady".

完了形

現在完了(have + 過去分詞)の4用法

  • 経験(〜したことがある): I have visited Paris twice.
  • 継続(ずっと〜している): She has lived in Tokyo for ten years.
  • 完了(〜したところだ・〜し終えた): He has just finished his homework.
  • 結果(〜した結果、今〜の状態だ): I have lost my key.(なくした結果、今ない)

現在完了進行形(have been + -ing)

  • 動作が過去から現在まで継続していることを強調する
  • I have been waiting for two hours.(2時間ずっと待っている)
  • It has been raining since this morning.(今朝からずっと雨が降っている)

過去完了(had + 過去分詞)

  • 過去の基準点よりさらに前の出来事(「大過去」)を表す
  • When I arrived, the movie had already started.(着いたとき、すでに始まっていた)
  • She was tired because she had not slept well.(よく眠れていなかったので疲れていた)

完了形でよく使う副詞・前置詞

  • for(期間): I have studied English for three years.
  • since(時点): She has lived here since 2020.
  • already(完了・肯定文): He has already left.
  • yet(完了・否定文・疑問文): Have you finished yet? / I haven't finished yet.
  • just(完了・直前): I have just arrived.
  • ever(経験・疑問文): Have you ever tried sushi?
  • never(経験・否定): I have never been to Europe.
  • recently(最近): Scientists have recently discovered a new species.

知覚動詞・使役動詞

知覚動詞(see / hear / feel / watch)の構文

  • 知覚動詞 + O + 動詞原形(動作の全体を見る・聞く): I saw him enter the room.(部屋に入るのを見た)
  • 知覚動詞 + O + -ing(動作の途中を見る・聞く): I saw him entering the room.(部屋に入りかけているのを見た)
  • I heard her sing a song. / I heard her singing a song.

使役動詞の構文とニュアンスの違い

  • make O do(強制・余儀なく〜させる): The teacher made the students redo their work.
  • let O do(許可・〜することを認める): My parents let me stay up late on weekends.
  • have O do(依頼・段取りして〜してもらう): I had the mechanic check my car.
  • get O to do(説得・頼んで〜させる): She got her son to clean his room.(to が必要)

使役動詞の受動態に注意

  • make の受動態では to が復活する
  • 能動態: They made him clean the room.
  • 受動態: He was made to clean the room.
  • ※ let の受動態は通常 be allowed to do を使う(be let to do は稀)

強調構文・倒置

It is ... that 〜 強調構文

  • 文の特定の要素(主語・目的語・副詞句)を強調する構文
  • It was John that broke the window.(窓を割ったのはジョンだ)← 主語を強調
  • It was the window that John broke.(ジョンが割ったのは窓だ)← 目的語を強調
  • It was yesterday that John broke the window.(ジョンが窓を割ったのは昨日だ)← 時を強調
  • 強調するのが人なら that の代わりに who も使える

否定語句による倒置

  • Never / Not / Hardly / Seldom などの否定語句が文頭に来ると疑問文語順(倒置)になる
  • Never have I seen such a beautiful view.(こんなに美しい景色を見たことがない)
  • Not until then did I understand the importance of friendship.(そのときになって初めて友情の大切さがわかった)
  • Hardly had she arrived when the phone rang.(着くかどうかのうちに電話が鳴った)

only + 副詞節による倒置

  • Only when / Only after / Only by + 副詞節[句]が文頭に来ると主節は倒置になる
  • Only when I was older did I understand what my parents had taught me.(年を重ねて初めて親の教えがわかった)
  • Only by working hard can you achieve your goals.(一生懸命働くことによってのみ目標を達成できる)